Since 1998, the ASCE has prepared a comprehensive assessment of the nation’s major infrastructure systems using letter grades for each category and a concise but replicable methodology to analyse all aspects of system performance.

In terms of water infrastructure, the report assesses dams (D+), drinking water (C-), inland waterways (C-), levees (D+), stormwater (D) and wastewater (D+).
This year’s report finds nearly 50% of the grades increasing for the 18 categories assessed, crediting this to recent federal investments to improve US infrastructure.
The report recommends a comprehensive agenda over the next four years to sustain investment, prioritise resilience, and advance forward-thinking policies and innovations.

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By James Workman

Extreme weather wreaks havoc on modern cities. A single storm falling on a 200 km2 city can generate two million cubic metres of stormwater runoff within hours, eroding lands, gathering toxic pollutants, overflowing sewers and drains, and degrading the aquatic life of local streams.

Water professionals recognise these risks are made worse by the sprawl of hard surfaces. But they lack funds to hold back the water before its momentum overwhelms the city.

Elected officials can’t and won’t force voters to “slow, spread and sink” harmful runoff, or redo concrete or asphalt until impervious surfaces can ‘breathe.’ Nor can underfunded regulatory agencies afford to subsidise voluntary retrofits. So how can cashstrapped municipalities grow “spongelike” to absorb the escalating shocks from climate change?

One flexible new approach to this age-old problem is to set up a market for rainfall that encourages private and public interests to trade in urban stormwater retention credits (SRCs).

The idea behind an SRC is to set a hard overall volumetric target, or cap, of stormwater runoff per unit of land. Developers can then choose to capture their share on site, or purchase credits from those elsewhere who voluntarily surpass their requirements and have runoff savings to spare. One stormwater retention credit = one gallon of retention capacity for one year. It adds up. One 11,000 gallon rain garden could earn US$25,000 dollars a year.

That motivates investors, landowners, developers and even church congregations to seek and find new ways to catalyse green infrastructure retrofits and mimic natural processes. Incentives encourage network effects, as aggregators seek opportunities. The city can act as market-maker, enforcing compliance while aligning public and private interests under a meaningful–and potentially rewarding–overarching goal.

Researchers writing in the Urban Water Journal argue that this marketbased approach can quickly “identify the most efficient investments to reduce urban stormwater impacts at minimum cost.” Under SRC frameworks, an environmental procurement auction reveals and minimises the cost of private interventions.

It’s not just academics who say so. Early successful results of StormwaterTender, a field trial in Melbourne, Australia have led other cities, including arid Los Angeles and humid Washington DC, to adopt similar low-impact systems for stormwater infiltration, and to protect water quality.

Today’s Washington DC residents are told they can generate and sell SRCs to earn revenue for projects that reduce harmful stormwater runoff by installing green infrastructure (GI) or by removing impervious surfaces. The Department of Energy and the Environment (DOEE) acts as market maker, and helps “lock in an SRC sale price, so you’ll still have the option to sell your SRCs in an open market to properties that have regulatory requirements for managing stormwater.”

SRCs are still in their relative infancy, but maturing fast. In 2018 DOEE completed five large rain gardens that in each storm can prevent more than 350,000 litres of harmful polluted stormwater runoff from reaching the local Anacostia River.

The market scheme is run by District Stormwater LLC, a collaboration between NatureVest, the impact investment arm of The Nature Conservancy and the asset management firm Encourage Capital, which has attracted a US$1.7 million investment from Prudential Financial.

One trust-building innovation by the public-private partnership has been DOEE’s US$11.5 million dollar commitment to purchase credits at a certain price floor. “The SRC Price Lock Programme aims to catalyse green infrastructure construction in areas where untreated stormwater drains directly to District waterbodies,” says DOEE Director Tommy Wells of what he calls a stock market for runoff. “Our SRC programme enables developers to purchase credits in order to comply with their regulatory obligations, [shifting] the developer’s funding for green infrastructure to the areas that need it most.”

Jon Roberts of Solvitect LLC, an SRC aggregating business, calls the Price Lock programme “a game-changer for investors who are interested in funding large-scale green infrastructure in the District. The certainty that DOEE will purchase SRCs makes it easier to fund such projects.”

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The report, entitled A Partially Treated Problem: Overflows From Combined Sewers, states that treatment plants burdened by excess stormwater through combined sewage systems are consistently forced to divert contaminated flows into nearby creeks and lakes. According to New York Upstate, half of the contaminated waters come from New York City.

Treatment plants are a recently added type of infrastructure to the system’s design, which over time has lead to a gradual build-up of “gray water” from appliances such as washing machines and bathtubs. The report says the system’s original design was intended to collect mainly residential, commercial and industrial sewage. It explains that treatment facilities “may not have the capacity to treat the resulting large volume of combined water”.

“Older infrastructure was not designed with these newer flows in mind, nor was it built to handle the increases in volume due to population growth and land development. Even newer, separated sanitary sewers can struggle with these challenges,” it adds.

Combined sewer systems currently serve New York City’s 8.5 million residents (the state’s total residency numbers some 10.5 million people), many of whom use surrounding bodies of natural water for leisurely activities, including swimming and fishing. As growing numbers of people move to these areas, concerns over the capacity of the state to maintain its natural beauty have intensified.

The report argues however that in most cases, “wastewater does not come into direct contact with drinking water”, due to its far-removed proximity to sewer outflows. It warns though that the risk of contaminants finding their way into downstream drinking water systems are large enough to require decisive action by local officials to improve current infrastructure.

The United States Environmental Protection Agency (EPA)’s latest estimates costs to the taxpayer of correcting the state’s combined sewer system at US$5.1 billion until 2032. This is on top of the US$26.3 billion needed to improve other wastewater infrastructure, a cost the report emphasises lies with local government.

While extreme wet weather events that tend to overwhelm combined sewer systems “are expected to increase in severity and frequency”, the report recommends local officials use these events and other reports of sewage release to “motivate residents, businesses and taxpayers to take action”.

It concludes: “Maintaining such a farsighted, deliberate and persistent response can be a challenge, especially for municipalities struggling with fiscal stress. However, the cost of inaction is also large, as evidenced by increasing beach closures, harmful algal blooms, fish consumption limits and countless other related impacts on human and environmental health.”

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Rapid urbanisation is one of the defining global trends of our time, with both positive and negative impacts. Increasing concentrations of population create challenges to supply enough resources including food, energy and water. There is concern that cities will lack the capacity to cope with rising demands, while rural areas will have difficulty in dealing with the pressure on natural resources and agricultural land that growing city populations will bring.

Growing cities provide opportunities for new and innovative approaches to address these challneges, such as systems thinking, closed loop systems and retention of value. This includes through resource recovery of water, energy and nutrients from wastewater; improved water efficiency in water services, industry and domestic use; and improved stormwater management through green and blue infrastructure.

Urban stakeholders have a critical role to play in preserving the freshwater resources on which they depend. A disruption in supply of freshwater resources to cities can have significant economic, environmental and health consequences. However, managing current and future water challenges cannot be undertaken by individual entities such as utilities or even city governments. Rather, they need to engage and work with stakeholders across the catchment they rely on for water resources.

A 2016 study from The Nature Conservancy estimated watershed degradation costs global cities US$5.4 billion in water treatment annually, and many city governments are realising the importance of investing in their watersheds. In China, the Beijing and Tianjin municipalities have negotiated with farmers upstream to create the Environmental Forest Compensation Fund. This ensures water quality in the reservoir that supplies the majority of water to Beijing. There are accompanying soil and water conservation programmes driven by the central government.

In Peru, the national water regulator, SUNASS, together with utilities and end-users, are working to introduce principles and practices to create water-wise water basins. Applying policies and laws to create economic instruments and financing mechanisms that protect and share water resources across the country’s water basins. Utilities are encouraged to increase the fees for water supply and sanitation services, funds that can be used to rehabilitate and introduce management programmes in their catchment areas.

An Action Agenda for water basins

Building on these experiences, IWA is developing a Basin Action Agenda which aims to influence and activate utilities, cities and their industries to become water stewards, protecting their watersheds, water supply and water quality. This is through working with basin and catchment organisations, as well as other water management stakeholders such as agriculture and mining.

The Agenda outlines the rationale for urban stakeholders to lead the way as water stewards, and the different pathways and activities to achieve more integrated water resources management from catchment to consumer. These actions include the use of innovative science and technology for integration of green and grey infrastructure; and the application of regulatory approaches that can drive improved water management. It provides a framework for showcasing best practices to inspire cities and their stakeholders to be aware of, and respond to, what is happening in the watershed.

The Agenda builds upon the Principles for Water-Wise Cities, which aim to integrate water in planning across scales, and help city leaders ensure that everyone in their cities has access to safe water and sanitation. There are 4 levels: Regenerative Water Services; Water Sensitive Urban Design; Basin Connected Cities; and Building water-wise communities. The level of Basin Connected Cities is the entry point for the Basins Action Agenda, including securing the water resource, protecting water quality and preparing for extreme events.

How can you contribute to the Basins Action Agenda?

We are looking to urban stakeholders that are leading the way in strengthening the connection with their catchments through different actions and pathways to contribute to the development and promotion of the Basin Action Agenda:

• Contribute a Basin Story which outlines the successes and challenges that urban stakeholders have experienced in becoming water stewards in the wider catchment;
• Join in an online webinar will provide a shared platform to learn more and contribute to the Basin Action Agenda; and
• Participate in one of the workshops highlighting how urban and basin stakeholders are working together on water resource management from catchment to tap.

The feedback collected from the workshop series, webinar and the basin stories will be reflected in the launch of the Basin Action Agenda at the 2018 IWA World Water Congress in Tokyo.

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Water is a finite resource. With a growing population, an expanding global middle class and a rise in energy and industrial production, the demand for water is reaching new levels. According to the OECD, global demand for freshwater will increase by 55 percent between 2000 and 2050. By 2050 it is expected that roughly 6.4 billion people will live in cities, making urban water management an essential building block for resilience and sustainable growth.

A growing number of users with competing demands further propels the issue of global water scarcity. A variable climate with unpredictable precipitation patterns intensifies this issue. It is now more important than ever to find ways to be more careful with the water we have and to better balance competing water needs between different users.

The good news is that we know we can be far more efficient in our use of water, and many actors, such as cities already are.

At SIWI, we believe that a circular economy in which water is reused and waste is managed as an economic asset are important parts of the solution to this challenge.

The opportunities for exploiting wastewater are enormous. When properly harnessed, wastewater is an affordable and sustainable source of water, energy, nutrients and other consumables.

World Water Week in Stockholm addressed the challenges presented by two ambitious targets set out in the Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs).

Goal 6, target 3:
“by 2030, improve water quality by reducing pollution, eliminating dumping and minimizing release of hazardous chemicals and materials, halving the proportion of untreated wastewater and substantially increasing recycling and safe reuse globally”

Goal 12, target 5:
“by 2030, substantially reduce waste generation through prevention, reduction, recycling and reuse”.

These are just two of the 169 SDG targets, that along with the 2015 Paris Agreement on Climate Change and the annual Global Risk Report by the World Economic Forum, highlight our challenge to achieve sustainable development in a changing world.

Water is a great connector and is at the core of sustainable development. It is the ‘blue thread’ that runs through the SDGs–without reliable access to water almost none of the Sustainable Development Goals can be achieved.

In recent years, business leaders and city mayors have become more engaged in water and sustainable development, becoming important partners in achieving a water wise world.

Cities are increasingly recognised as critical to achieving the SDGs. They are the frontline for institutional, economic and social change; they are the future for humanity and the stage upon which the SDGs will unfold.

While wastewater isn’t only an urban challenge, cities can serve as a hub for wastewater innovation as they present some of the greatest wastewater challenges. Challenges from sewage management, stormwater runoff and urban flooding are further exaggerated by intensified urbanisation and climate change.

Water supply, sanitation and stormwater are integral components of the urban water system, yet they are often not planned or operated in an integrated way. Viewing them as a single system can greatly enhance the utility of water, both in the context of everyday use and under stress.

This calls for new approaches to ‘smart cities’, with greater emphasis on integrated urban water and wastewater management, with stronger links to spatial planning and inter-institutional collaboration.

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Rainwater harvesting and management is nothing new. In fact, this technique has been used for thousands of years in many parts of the globe to capture and store rainwater in the pores of soil or for human use. Growing water scarcity, climate change, rapid urbanisation, and increased demand for water, are once again making this ancient technology a viable option for cities.

The potential for rainwater harvesting and management (RWHM) to reduce water consumption, alleviate stormwater runoff and provide drinking water, has largely been neglected in the modern era. In part, this is due to local context, such as seasonal variability in rainfall, costs of storage, treatment and retrofitting water systems, as well as policy and institutional barriers. Add to this short-sighted water management policies that rely on the overexploitation of river water or groundwater.

For cities and communities to become truly water-wise, the long-term benefits of using alternative water sources, such as rainwater, is key. The decentralised nature of RWHM requires the involvement and cooperation of the communities they most affect. A water-wise city first requires water-wise communities that understand the benefits of such systems.

How can we make RWHM happen in cities?

Integration across sectors and disciplines, and reworking city-wide master plans that promote policy alignment, are vital. As is working with local communities and other stakeholders to ensure the knowledge and capacities for successful implementation. There is a long way to go, but pioneering examples from Asia offer a glimpse of what may be possible.

Singapore

In Singapore, a city-state with limited water resources, harvesting rainwater was a natural extension of pre-existing strategies to reduce, reuse and replenish water sources. Approximately 86 percent of Singapore’s population lives in high-rise buildings, so rooftop water collection systems have been installed to maximise the use of rainwater and act as a catchment. The rainwater is collected in tanks and used for toilet flushing, helping to reduce water consumption, save on energy and reduce other costs within the buildings.

Vietnam

In a village near Hanoi, Vietnam, without piped water supply, the groundwater is contaminated with arsenic, river water is polluted, and bottled water is too expensive. The only option for drinking water is to use rainwater. Several community-based rainwater harvesting systems, including within public schools and hospitals, are successfully supplying drinking water to residents. After site-specific technical, economic and social barriers are identified and overcome, community-based rainwater harvesting can become a promising option to provide drinking water in rural villages in developing countries in Africa and East Asia alike.

Korea

In Korea, studies have shown that 90 percent of total water assets are ‘invisible water’–water that is held in soil moisture, living plants and the atmosphere. Maintaining and increasing invisible water is vital for cities, a process of urban greening achieved by reducing the number of impervious surfaces and retaining it in soil and plants. Invisible water evaporates to become clouds and later returns to the ground as rain, completing a short water cycle. Green infrastructure benefits cities twofold: enhancing resilience against extreme rainfall events; and reducing the urban heat island effects by evapotranspiration of invisible water. Greenery intercepts rainfall and slows down its travel, reducing the magnitude of flooding risks. Greenery also consumes heat energy by evaporation, therefore decreasing the temperature. Did you know that 1m3 of water consumes 700KWh of heat energy by evaporation? That is the equivalent of the energy spent in a day by 100 air conditioning window units.

China

Shenzhen is responding to its urban water shortage crisis by becoming one of the earliest adopters of the Sponge City concept. The city aims to become a water supply catchment, increasing its use of invisible water to provide temperature control. This has begun with the implementation of policies and regulations for rainfall infiltration, retention and storage in new construction projects. Shenzhen has made progress, but still faces challenges to ensure stable and clean water supply. Increasing urban green spaces, Sponge City concepts and retrofitting buildings in cities, are all important methods to prepare for an uncertain future.

The way forward

Traditional water management has much to contribute to future solutions, but we must move towards a new paradigm that considers rainwater as a main water resource within the entire water cycle in a city. By doing so we can align stakeholders to an urban water vision known as a water-wise community.

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The programme will provide long-term, low-cost credit assistance to creditworthy water projects. WIFIA provides another option for financing large infrastructure projects–generally at least US$20 million–in addition to the State Revolving Funds and bond market.

“The launch of the Water Infrastructure Finance and Innovation Act programme marks a huge step forward for modernising our nation’s aging water infrastructure,” said EPA Administrator Gina McCarthy. “WIFIA gives us a new opportunity to provide billions of dollars in low-interest loans to communities to build large infrastructure projects, significantly accelerating investments that benefit our nation’s public health and water security for generations to come.”

WIFIA is available to state, local, and tribal governments; private entities; partnerships; and State Revolving Fund programmes. EPA estimates that funds appropriated to the WIFIA programme could be leveraged at a ratio greater than 50 to one, which means the US$17 million programme budget could allow EPA to make approximately US$1 billion in loans and stimulate about US$2 billion in total infrastructure investment.

Some of the projects that WIFIA enables the Environmental Protection Agency to provide assistance for include: drinking water treatment and distribution projects, wastewater conveyance and treatment projects, enhanced energy efficiency projects at drinking water and wastewater facilities, desalination, aquifer recharge, alternative water supply, and water recycling projects, and drought prevention, reduction, or mitigation projects.

EPA will evaluate projects using criteria such as the extent to which the project is nationally or regionally significant, helps maintain or protect public health or the environment, protects against extreme weather, and serves regions with significant water resource challenges.

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